初中化学（物理历史政治语文数学英语）知识点总结复习资料

小学

凡金属与盐溶液反应，判断反应前后溶液的质量变化，只要看参加反应金属的相对原子质量大小与生成的金属的相对原子质量的大小。“大换小增重，小换大减重”

30、凡是同质量同价态的金属与酸反应，相对原子质量越大的产生氢气的质量就越少。31、凡常温下能与水反应的金属（如K、Ca、Na），就一定不能与盐溶液发生置换反应；但它们与酸反应是最为激烈的。

如Na加入到CuSO4溶液中，发生的反应是：2Na+2H2O =2NaOH+H2 ↑；2NaOH+CuSO4 =Cu(OH)2 ↓+Na2SO4 。

31、凡是排空气法（无论向上还是向下），都一定要将导气管伸到集气瓶底部。

32、制备气体的发生装置，在装药品前一定要检查气密性。

点燃或加热可燃性气体之前一定要检验纯度.

33、书写化学式时，正价元素不一定都写在左边。如NH3 、CH4

34、5g某物质放入95g水中，充分溶解后，所得溶液的溶质质量分数不一定等于5%。

可能等于5%，如NaCl、KNO3 等；也可能大于5%，如K2O、Na2O、BaO、SO3 等；也可能小于5%，如结晶水合物以及Ca(OH)2 、CaO 等。

◆相同条件下，CaO 或Ca(OH)2 溶于水后所得溶液的溶质质量分数最小

小学

初中语文知识点总结
一、语文知识点

1．小说三要素：A人物B情节C环境

2．议论文三要素：A论点B论据C论证

3．比喻三要素：A本体B喻体C喻词

4．记叙文六要素（五W+H）：何时when何地where何人who何因why何过how何果what

5．律诗四条件：A八句四联（首颔颈尾）B偶尾同韵C中联对偶D平声合调

6．五种表达方式：A叙述B议论C抒情D说明 E描写

7．六种说明文说明方法：A举例子B列数字C打比方（喻）D作比较E分类别F下定义

8．三种说明文说明结构：A总分总结构B总分结构C分总结构

9．三大说明文说明顺序：A按时间顺序B按空间顺序C按逻辑顺序

10．两种基本议论文结构：A提出问题-----分析问题-----解决问题

                                           B提出观点-----论证观点-----总结观点

11．六种议论文论证方法：A举例法B对比法C 喻证法

D E归谬法F

12．八种主要修辞方法：A比喻B拟人C排比D夸张

E反问G反复F设问H对偶（简记为：喻拟排夸，二反设对）

13．四种人物描写方法：A外貌描写B语言描写C动作描写D心理描写（简记为：外语动心）

14．七种短语类型： A并列短语B偏正短语C 主谓短语D动宾短语

E动补短语F介宾短语G的字短语（按功能划分为七种）

A名词性短语B动词性短语C形容词性短语（按词性分三种）

15．六种句子成分：A主语B谓语C宾语D补语E定语F状语

16．十二词类（性）：A名动形B数量代C副介连D助叹拟

17．三种记叙方法（顺序）：A顺叙B倒叙C插叙

18．三种省略号作用：A表引文内容省略B表列举事项省略C表说话中断延长

19．四种波折号作用：A表解释说明前文B表后文跳跃转折C表声音中断延长D表时地数起止

20．四种引号作用：A表引用实际内容B表讽刺反语C表特定称谓D表着重强调

小学

文体知识
1 记叙文文体知识要点
(1) 以记叙文为主要表达方式的文章叫记叙文.语言特点,生动,形象.
(2) 作品中所反映的生活和作者对生活的看法,就是记叙文的中心,也叫中心思想.中心思想是依靠人,事,景,物这些材料来表的.因而记叙文的材料必须为中心思想服务,做到中心明确,集中.
(3) 记叙文的顺序主要有几种:顺叙,倒叙,插叙.
顺叙:按事件的发生,发展结局的过程记叙.    倒叙:把事件的结局或某个最突出的片断提到文章的开头写,然后再按时间顺序写事件的经过.    插叙:在记叙过程中,有时需要插入另一些有关的情节,然后再按着记叙原来的事情.
(4) 记叙文中的详略安排应该是能突出中心的材料应该详写;与中心有关系,但是不很重要的材料,应该略写;与中心无关的材料应该舍弃.这样,才能使记叙的中心集中,鲜明,突出.
(5) 记叙文的样式常见有:对现实生活中典型人物和事迹作具体报道的通讯.用文字语言和文学手法描述真人真事的特写.记叙山川景物,旅途见闻为主的游记. 追忆本人或生活经历和社会活动的回忆录,传记,访问记等.它们共同特点是:所写内容必须真实,不容许随意夸大或缩小事实,更不能编造虚构,即要有真实性;对所写的内容又要求作必要的加工.力求文章中心突出,形象鲜明,构思精巧
(6) 特写是报告文学的一种样式,它截取人物或事件的某个片断,细致地加以描述.
(7) 传记一般分两类:一类记叙自己的生平；一类记叙他人的生平。传记的主要特点是实录，要求实事求是，不允许虚构夸张。传记在表达上以记叙为主，也可以适当插入议论，描写。传记记叙的顺序一般以时间为序。人物和人物故事的区别在于人物故事只要具体写出人物的某个事件或某几件事就行了。小传则要求写出人物的出生地，出生年月，主要经历等。人物自传的繁简区别在于自传可以根据需要采用不同写法，可以写自己全部经历，也可以写自己某个时期的经历。
2 说明文文体知识要点
（1）以说明为主要表达方式，按一定的要求解说事物或事理的文章称为说明文。说明文的语言特点：准确，平实，简洁。
（2）说明事物的前提是抓住事物的特征。所谓特征就是事物间相互区别的标志。
（3）说明文的说明顺序有：空间顺序，时间顺序，逻辑顺序，（有总说后分说，先主要后次要，先原因后结果，由现象到本质，由性能到功用等）
（4）常用的说明方法有：分类别，作解释，举例子，打比方，作比较，用数字，列图表。
（5）说明文按说明对象和内容分有：说明实体事物和说明抽象事理两大类。说明文按写作方法和表达方式分有：平实性说明文和文艺性说明文。
（6）平实性说明文和文艺性说明文的区别在于：平实性说明文纯用说明的表达方式，语言朴实简明，内容具体，切实使人读了就能明白。如自然科学的各类教科书。科技信息资料，实验报告，说明书等。文艺性说明文以说明为主，辅以叙述，描写，抒情等多种表达方式，并常用借助一些修辞方法，形象化地介绍事物或阐述事理，使读者在获得知识的同时，还能得到艺术的享受，这类说明文通常称知识小品或科学小品。
（7）说明文的描写和记叙文中的描写区别：a 目的不同：记叙文中的描写是为了“使人有所感，”；说明文的描写是为了“使人有所知”。b 记叙文可以根据中心思想的需要，使用各种描写方法起到多方面的作用。说明文的描写则只能在说明事物的过程中，借助某钟形象化的手法，对事物的特征作一些必要的描绘，主要是起到使说明的事物特征更具体，更形象。c 记叙文中的描写可以发挥艺术想象，可以夸张，渲染，而说明文中的描写在务真求实的前提下进行语言加工，做到既形象生动，又真实可信。
3 议论文文体的知识要点
（1）生活中少不了议论，讲道理，发表意见就是议论。以议论为主要表达方式的文章就是议论文。
（2）议论总要提出看法或主张，这种看法或主张就是论点，用来证明论点的材料就为论据，用论据来证明论点的过程即为论证过程。
（3）用以证明论点的材料有两大类：事实材料（事实论据）即确凿的事例；史实；统计数字等。理论材料（道理论据）即名人名言；警句；格言；科学原理；自然定律；马列毛泽东思想。
（4）议论文的基本结构：提出问题；分析问题；解决问题。议论文的基本论证方法：摆事实，讲道理。论证方式：立论，驳论。所谓立论就是正面阐述自己的观点。驳论就是批驳错误的观点。
（5）一事一议议论文的写作特点：借事发表议论，就事说明道理。而从“事”到议。又必须理出并把握两者的联系点，才可顺理成章地展开议论，这事“一事一议”的关键。
（6）议论文常见的有几种样式：社论，评论，学术论文，专题讨论，杂感，随笔以及侧重1于议论性的讲演词，书信等。在以上样式中，有理论性较强的，有文艺性较强的。

小学

初中英语知识点总结
一般现在时的用法

1) 经常性或习惯性的动作，常与表示频腮度的时间状语连用。
时间状语： every…, sometimes, at…, on Sunday
I leave home for school at 7 every morning.

2) 客观真理，客观存在，科学事实。
The earth moves around the sun.
Shanghai lies in the east of China.
3) 表示格言或警句中。
Pride goes before a fall. 骄者必败。


注意：此用法如果出现在宾语从句中，即使主句是过去时，从句谓语也要用一般现在时。
例：Columbus proved that the earth is round..

4) 现在时刻的状态、能力、性格、个性。
I don’t want so much.
Ann Wang writes good English but does not speak well.
比较：Now I put the sugar in the cup.
I am doing my homework now.
第一句用一般现在时，用于操作演示或指导说明的示范性动作，表示言行的瞬间动作。再如：Now watch me, I switch on the current and stand back. 第二句中的now是进行时的标志，表示正在进行的动作的客观状况，所以后句用一般现在时。
2. 一般过去时的用法


1）在确定的过去时间里所发生的动作或存在的状态。
时间状语有：yesterday, last week, an hour ago, the other day, in 1982等。
Where did you go just now?

2）表示在过去一段时间内，经常性或习惯性的动作。
When I was a child, I often played football in the street.
Whenever the Browns went during their visit, they were given a warm welcome.

3）句型：
It is time for sb. to do sth "到……时间了" "该……了"
It is time sb. did sth. "时间已迟了" "早该……了"
It is time for you to go to bed. 你该睡觉了。
It is time you went to bed. 你早该睡觉了。
would (had) rather sb. did sth. 表示’宁愿某人做某事’
I’d rather you came tomorrow.

4) wish, wonder, think, hope 等用过去时，作试探性的询问、请求、建议等。
I thought you might have some. 我以为你想要一些。

比较：
一般过去时表示的动作或状态都已成为过去，现已不复存在。
Christine was an invalid all her life.
(含义：她已不在人间。)
Christine has been an invalid all her life.
(含义：她现在还活着)
Mrs. Darby lived in Kentucky for seven years.
(含义：达比太太已不再住在肯塔基州。)
Mrs. Darby has lived in Kentucky for seven years.
( 含义：现在还住在肯塔基州，有可能指刚离去)

注意： 用过去时表示现在，表示委婉语气。
1）动词want, hope, wonder, think, intend 等。
Did you want anything else?
I wondered if you could help me.
2）情态动词 could, would.
Could you lend me your bike?
3. used to / be used to

used to + do："过去常常"表示过去习惯性的动作或状态，但如今已不存在。
Mother used not to be so forgetful.
Scarf used to take a walk. (过去常常散步)

be used to + doing： 对……已感到习惯，或"习惯于"，to是介词，后需加名词或动名词。
He is used to a vegetarian diet.
Scarf is used to taking a walk.(现在习惯于散步)

小学

典型例题
---- Your phone number again? I ___ quite catch it.
---- It’s 69568442.
A. didn’t B. couldn’t C. don’t D. can’t
答案A. 本句虽没有明确的时间状语，但从语意上看 出，在听的时候没有听懂这个动作发生在过去，因此应用过去时。
4. 一般将来时

1) shall用于第一人称，常被will 所代替。
will 在陈述句中用于各人称，在争求意见时常用于第二人称。
Which paragraph shall I read first.
Will you be at home at seven this evening?

2) be going to +不定式，表示将来。
a. 主语的意图，即将做某事。
What are you going to do tomorrow?
b. 计划，安排要发生的事。
The play is going to be produced next month。
c. 有迹象要发生的事
Look at the dark clouds, there is going to be a storm.

3) be +不定式表将来，按计划或正式安排将发生的事。
We are to discuss the report next Saturday.

4) be about to +不定式，意为马上做某事。
He is about to leave for Beijing.
注意：be about to 不能与tomorrow, next week 等表示明确将来时的时间状语连用。
5. be going to / will

用于条件句时， be going to 表将来
will 表意愿
If you are going to make a journey, you’d better get ready for it a s soon as possible.
Now if you will take off your clothes, we will fit the new clothes on you in front of the mirror.
6. be to和be going to

be to 表示客观安排或受人指示而做某事。
be going to 表示主观的打算或计划。
I am to play football tomorrow afternoon. (客观安排)
I’m going to play football tomorrow afternoon. (主观安排)
7. 一般现在时表将来

1）下列动词：come, go, arrive, leave, start, begin, return的一般现在时表将来。这主要用来表示在时间上已确定或安排好的事情。
The train leaves at six tomorrow morning.
When does the bus star? It stars in ten minutes.

2）倒装句，表示动作正在进行，如：
Here comes the bus. = The bus is coming.
There goes the bell. = The bell is ringing.

3）在时间或条件句中。
When Bill comes (不是will come), ask him to wait for me.
I’ll write to you as soon as I arrive there.

4）在动词hope, take care that, make sure that等后。
I hope they have a nice time next week.
Make sure that the windows are closed before you leave the room.
11. 用于现在完成时的句型

1）It is the first / second time…. that…结构中的从句部分，用现在完成时。
It is the first time that I have visited the city.
It was the third time that the boy had been late.

2）This is the… that…结构，that 从句要用现在完成时.
This is the best film that I’ve (ever) seen.
这是我看过的最好的电影。
This is the first time (that) I’ve heard him sing. 这是我第一次听他唱歌。

典型例题
(1) ---Do you know our town at all?
---No, this is the first time I ___ here.
A. was B. have been C. came D. am coming
答案B. This is the first time 后面所加从句应为现在完成时，故选B。

(2) ---Have you ____ been to our town before?
---No, it’s the first time I ___ here.
A. even, come B. even, have come C. ever, come D. ever, have come
答案D. ever意为曾经或无论何时，反意词为never，此两词常用于完成时。 This is the largest fish I have ever seen. It is / was the first time +that-clause 的句型中，从句要用完成时。
注意：非延续性动词的否定形式可以与表示延续时间的状语连用。即动作不发生的状态是可以持续的。
（错）I have received his letter for a month.
（对）I haven’t received his letter for almost a month.
12. 比较since和for

小学

Since 用来说明动作起始时间，for用来说明动作延续时间长度。
I have lived here for more than twenty years.
I have lived here since I was born..
My aunt has worked in a clinic since 1949.
Some new oilfields have been opened up since 1976.
I have known Xiao Li since she was a little girl.
My brother has been in the Youth League for two years.
I have not heard from my uncle for a long time.

注意：并非有for 作为时间状语的句子都用现在完成时。
I worked here for more than twenty years.
(我现在已不在这里工作。)
I have worked here for many years.
(现在我仍在这里工作。)

小窍门： 当现在完成时+一段时间，这一结构中，我们用下面的公式转化，很容易就能排除非延续动词在完成时中的误使。
1) (对) Tom has studied Russian for three years.
= Tom began to study Russian three years ago, and is still studying it now.
2) (错) Harry has got married for six years.
= Harry began to get married six years ago, and is still getting married now.
显然，第二句不对，它应改为 Harry got married six years ago. 或 Harry has been married for six years.
13. since的四种用法

1) since +过去一个时间点 (如具体的年、月、日期、钟点、1980, last month, half past six)。
I have been here since 1989.

2) since +一段时间+ ago
I have been here since five months ago.

3) since +从句
Great changes have taken place since you left.
Considerable time has elapsed since we have been here.

4) It is +一段时间+ since从句
It is two years since I became a postgraduate student.
被动语态的几种类型
1）主语句中有一个宾语的被动语态，如：
He saw her in the shop yesterday.
She was seen in the shop yesterday.
2) 主语有两个宾语的被动语态
Li Lei gave me a chemistry book.
I was given a chemistry book by Li Lei.
A chemistry book was given to me by Li Lei.
3）主动句中含宾语补足语的句子的被动语态
若宾语补足语是不带to 的不定式，变为被动语态时，该不定式前要加"to"。此类动词为
感官动词：feel, hear, help, listen to, look at, make, observe, see, notice, watch
The teacher made me go out of the classroom.
--> I was made to go out of the classroom (by the teacher).
We saw him play football on the playground.
--> He was seen to play football on the playground.
若宾语补足语是带to的不定式，那么被动语态仍保留to:
Mother told me not to be late
I was told not to be late by mother.
5）情态动词+ be +过去分词，构成被动语态。
Coal can be used to produce electricity for agriculture and industry.
6）表示"据说"或"相信" 的词组
? believe, consider, declare, expect, feel , report, say, see, suppose, think, understand
It is said that… 据说
It is reported that… 据报道
It is believed that… 大家相信
It is hoped that… 大家希望
It is well known that… 众所周知
It is thought that… 大家认为
It is suggested that… 据建议
It is taken granted that… 被视为当然
It has been decided that… 大家决定
It must be remember that…务必记住的是
It is said that she will leave for Wuhan on Tuesday.
14. 延续动词与瞬间动词

小学

1) 用于完成时的区别
延续动词表示经验、经历； 瞬间动词表示行为的结 果，不能与表示段的时间状语连用。
He has completed the work. 他已完成了那项工作。 (表结果)
I’ve known him since then. 我从那时起就认识他了。(表经历)

2) 用于till / until从句的差异
延续动词用于肯定句，表示"做……直到……" 瞬间动词用于否定句，表示"到……，才……"
He didn’t come back until ten o’clock.
他到10 点才回来。
He slept until ten o’clock.
他一直睡到10点。

典型例题
1. You don’t need to describe her. I ___ her several times.
A. had met B. have met C. met D. meet
答案B. 首先本题后句强调对现在的影响，我知道她的模样，你不用描述。再次，several times告知为反复发生的动作，因此用现在完成时。

2.---I’m sorry to keep you waiting.
---Oh, not at all. I ___ here only a few minutes.
A. have been B. had been C. was D. will be
答案A. 等待的动作由过去开始，持续到现在，应用现
. 不定式作宾语

1) 动词+ 不定式
afford aim appear agree arrange ask be decide bother care choose come dare demand desire determine expect elect endeavor hope fail happen help hesitate learn long mean manage offer ought plan prepare pretend promise refuse seem tend wait wish undertake
举例：
The driver failed to see the other car in time.
司机没能及时看见另一辆车。
I happen to know the answer to your question.
我碰巧知道你那道问题的答案。

2）动词+不定式 ； 动词+宾语+不定式
ask, beg, choose, expect , hate, help intend like, love, need prefer, prepare, promise, want, wish…
I like to keep everything tidy. 我喜欢每件东西都保持整洁。
I like you to keep everything tidy. 我喜欢你年使每件东西都保持整洁。
I want to speak to Tom. 我想和汤姆谈话。
I want you to speak to Tom. 我想让你和汤姆谈话。

3） 动词+疑问词+ to
decide, know, consider forget, learn, remember, show, understand, see, wonder, hear, find out, explain, tell
Please show us how to do that. 请演示给我们如何去做。
There are so many kinds of tape-recorders on sale that I can’t make up my mind which to buy.有这么多的录音机，我都拿不定主意买哪一种。

注意:疑问词带不定式在句中作成分时，谓语动词用单数。
The question is how to put it into practice.
问题是怎样把它付诸实施。
2. 不定式作补语

1) 动词+宾语+不定式(to do)
advise allow appoint believe cause challenge command compel consider declare drive enable encourage find forbid force guess hire imagine impel induce inform instruct invite judge know like order permit persuade remind report request require select send state suppose tell think train trust understand urge warn